Research using twins

site: Research using twins

To biomedical researchers all over the world, twins offer a precious opportunity to untangle the influence of genes and the environment - of nature and nurture.

untangle /ʌnˈtæŋ.ɡəl/ verb. 解开

Alternatively, by comparing the experiences of identical twins with those of fraternal twins, who come from separate eggs and share on average half their DNA, researchers can quantify the extent to which our genes affect our lives.

fraternal /frəˈtɝː.nəl/ adjective. 异卵双生的; 兄弟的

If identical twins are more similar to each other with respect to an ailment than fraternal twins are, then vulnerability to the disease must be rooted at least in part in heredity.

heredity /həˈred.ə.ti/ noun. 遗传

ailment /ˈeɪl.mənt/ noun. 小病

Studies of animals, for example, have shown that when a rat experiences stress during pregnancy, it can cause epigenetic changes in a fetus that lead to behavioral problems as the rodent grows up.

fetus /ˈfiː.t̬əs/ noun. 胎儿

rodent /ˈroʊ.dənt/ noun. 啮齿动物

Other epigenetic processes appear to occur randomly, while others are normal, such as those that guide embryonic cells as they become heart, brain, or liver cells, for example.

embryonic /ˌem.briˈɑː.nɪk/ adjective. 胚胎的

‘He was the trailblazer,’ she says.

trailblazer /ˈtreɪlˌbleɪ.zɚ/ noun. 拓荒者; 创始人

Schizophrenia was thought to be due to poor mothering.

schizophrenia /ˌskɪt.səˈfriː.ni.ə/ noun. 精神分裂症

An Introduction to Film Sound

site: An Introduction to Film Sound

For example, in the highly successful science-fiction film 2001, little dialogue was evident, and most of it was banal and of little intrinsic interest.

banal /bəˈnɑːl/ adjective. 平庸的

intrinsic /ɪnˈtrɪn.zɪk/ adjective. 本质的; 固有的

In this way the film-maker was able to portray what Thomas Sobochack and Vivian Sobochack call, in An Introduction to Film, the ‘inadequacy of human responses when compared with the magnificent technology created by man and the visual beauties of the universe’.

portray /pɔːrˈtreɪ/ verb. 描绘; 扮演

This use of dialogue underscores not only the dizzy quality of the character played by Katherine Hepburn, but also the absurdity of the film itself and thus its humor.

underscore /ˌʌn.dɚˈskɔːr/ verb. 强调; 在…下面画线

absurdity /əbˈsɝː.də.t̬i/ noun. 荒谬; 荒唐的想法

This film presents pure escapism - largely due to its frenetic dialogue.

escapism /ɪˈskeɪ.pɪ.zəm/ noun. 逃避现实

frenetic /frəˈnet̬.ɪk/ adjective. 狂热的

However, if the ‘click’ of an opening door is part of an ominous action such as a burglary, the sound mixer may call attention to the ‘click’ with an increase in volume; this helps to engage the audience in a moment of suspense.

ominous /ˈɑː.mə.nəs/ adjective. 不详的; 威胁的

burglary /ˈbɝː.ɡlɚ.i/ noun. 入室盗窃; 入室盗窃罪

suspense /səˈspens/ noun. 焦虑

Such sounds are included so as to provide an appropriate emotional nuance, and they may also add to the realism of the film.

nuance /ˈnuː.ɑːns/ noun. [声音、色彩、感情、外貌或意义方面的] 细微差别

We are probably all familiar with background music in films, which has become so ubiquitous as to be noticeable in its absence.

ubiquitous /juːˈbɪk.wə.t̬əs/ adjective. 普遍存在的

Usually not meant to be noticeable, it often provides a tone or an emotional attitude toward the story and /or the characters depicted. In addition, background music often foreshadows a change in mood. For example, dissonant music may be used in film to indicate an approaching (but not yet visible) menace or disaster.

foreshadow /fɔːrˈʃæd.oʊ/ verb. 预示

• anticipate /ænˈtɪs.ə.peɪt/ verb. 预料

dissonant /ˈdɪs.ən.ənt/ adjective. 刺耳的; 不和谐的

For example, a particular musical theme associated with an individual character or situation may be repeated at various points in a film in order to remind the audience of salient motifs or ideas.

salient /ˈseɪ.li.ənt/ adjective. 显著的; 主要的

Yet, it is important to note as well that sound is often brilliantly conceived. The effects of sound are often largely subtle and often are noted by only our subconscious minds. We need to foster an awareness of film sound as well as film space so as to truly appreciate an art form that sprang to life during the twentieth century - the modern film.

brilliantly /ˈbrɪl.jənt.li/ adverb. 巧妙地; 明亮地; 鲜明地

subtle /ˈsʌt̬.əl/ adjective. 细微的; 精妙的; 明锐的 +2

sprang to life 突然活跃起来

This Marvellous Invention

site: This Marvellous Invention

Of all mankinds manifold creations, language must take pride of place.

manifold /ˈmæn.ə.foʊld/ adjective. 多种多样的

Compared to language, all other inventions pale in significance, since everything we have ever achieved depends on language and originates from it. Without language, we could never have embarked on our ascent to unparalleled power over all other animals, and even over nature itself.

pale /peɪl/ adjective. 苍白的

embark /ɪmˈbɑːrk/ verb. 开始某事

unparalleled /ʌnˈper.əl.eld/ adjective. 无比的

In its own right it is a tool of extraordinary sophistication, yet based on an idea of ingenious simplicity

sophistication /səˌfɪs.təˈkeɪ.ʃən/ noun. 复杂; 先进

this marvellous invention of composing out of twenty-five or thirty sounds that infinite variety of expressions which, whilst having in themselves no likeness to what is in our mind, allow us to disclose to others its whole secret, and to make known to those who cannot penetrate it all that we imagine, and all the various stirrings of our soul

penetrate /ˈpen.ə.treɪt/ verb. 被理解; 进入; 穿透

stirring /ˈstɝː.ɪŋ/ adjective. 搅动

This was how, in 1660, the renowned French grammarians of the Port-Royal abbey near Versailles distilled the essence of language, and no one since has celebrated more eloquently the magnitude of its achievement.

renowned /rɪˈnaʊnd/ adjective. 著名的

abbey /ˈæb.i/ noun. 修道院

distill /dɪˈstɪl/ verb. 提炼; 吸取…的精华

eloquently /ˈel.ə.kwənt.li/ adverb. 雄辩地; 传神达意地

magnitude /ˈmæɡ.nə.tuːd/ noun. 巨大的; 重大的

Even so, there is just one flaw in all these hymns of praise, for the homage to languages unique accomplishment conceals a simple yet critical incongruity.

flaw /flɑː/ noun. 瑕疵

conceal /kənˈsiːl/ verb. 隐藏; 瞒住

incongruity /ˌɪn.kənˈɡruː.ə.t̬i/ noun. 不协调; 不合时宜

How else could this instrument make so much out of barely three dozen measly morsels of sound?

measly /ˈmiːz.li/ adjective. 少得可怜的

morsel /ˈmɔːr.səl/ noun. 一小口; 少量

In themselves, these configurations of mouth p,f,b,v,t,d,k,g,sh,a,e and so on - amount to nothing more than a few haphazard spits and splutters, random noises with no meaning, no ability to express, no power to explain.

haphazard /ˌhæpˈhæz.ɚd/ adjective. 杂乱的; 随意的

splutter /ˈsplʌt̬.ɚ/ verb. 慌张的说话; 语无伦次

But run them through the cogs and wheels of the language machine, let it arrange them in some very special orders, and there is nothing that these meaningless streams of air cannot do: from sighing the interminable boredom of existence to unravelling the fundamental order of the universe.

sigh /saɪ/ verb. 叹气

interminable /ɪnˈtɝː.mɪ.nə.bəl/ adjective. 无休止的

boredom /ˈbɔːr.dəm/ noun. 厌倦; 乏味

unravel /ʌnˈræv.əl/ verb. 解开; 松散

The language machine allows just about everybody from pre-modern foragers in the subtropical savannah, to post-modern philosophers in the suburban sprawl - to tie these meaningless sounds together into an infinite variety of subtle senses, and all apparently without the slightest exertion.

forager /ˈfɔːr.ɪdʒ.ɚ/ noun. (a person or animal that goes from place to place searching for things that they can eat or use:)

subtropical /ˌsʌbˈtrɑː.pɪ.kəl/ adjective. 亚热带的

• tropical /ˈtrɑː.pɪ.kəl/ adjective. 热带的 +1

savannah /səˈvæn.ə/ noun. 稀树草原

philosopher /fɪˈlɑː.sə.fɚ/ noun. 哲学家

suburban səˈbɝː.bən/ adjective. 郊区的

• suburb /ˈsʌb.ɝːb/ noun. 郊区

sprawl /sprɑːl/ verb. 杂乱无序的地区

exertion /ɪɡˈzɝː.ʃən/ noun. 努力; 施加

Yet it is precisely this deceptive ease which makes language a victim of its own success, since in everyday life its triumphs are usually taken for granted.

triumph /ˈtraɪ.əmf/ noun. 伟大胜利; 重大成就 +1

Often, it is only the estrangement of foreign tongues, with their many exotic and outlandish features, that brings home the wonder of languages design.

estrangement /ɪˈstreɪndʒ.mənt/ noun. 疏远; 分手

outlandish /ˌaʊtˈlæn.dɪʃ/ adjective. 稀奇古怪的

What is so impressive about it, however, is not its lengthiness but rather the reverse - the thrifty compactness of its construction.

thrifty /ˈθrɪf.ti/ adjective. 节俭的

compactness /kəmˈpækt.nəs/ noun. 紧凑

The word is made up of different slots, each corresponding to a particular portion of meaning.

corresponding /ˌkɔːr.əˈspɑːn.dɪŋ/ adjective. 相关的; 相似的

This sleek design allows single sounds to convey useful information, and in fact even the absence of a sound has been enlisted to express something specific.

sleek /sliːk/ adjective. 油量的; 时髦的; 流畅的

enlist /ɪnˈlɪst/ verb. 谋求

Who could possibly have come up with such a nifty contraption?

nifty /ˈnɪf.ti/ adjective. 漂亮的; 有用的

contraption /kənˈtræp.ʃən/ noun. 新奇装置